Northern Segregation: De Facto Discrimination — Reading Comprehension

Segregation in the United States is often associated with the South, but racial separation also existed in the North. Unlike the South’s de jure (by law) segregation, the North practiced de facto discrimination—separation that happened because of customs, habits, and economic policies rather than laws. This type of segregation affected where people lived, the schools they attended, and the jobs they could get.

After the Great Migration, when millions of African Americans moved from the South to northern cities between 1916 and 1970, they hoped to find more freedom and better opportunities. However, they faced new barriers. White residents and real estate agents used restrictive covenants—agreements that prevented Black families from buying homes in certain neighborhoods. Banks often denied loans to Black families, a practice called redlining. As a result, African American communities were forced into crowded, poorly funded neighborhoods with fewer resources.

Schools in the North were not separated by law, but district boundaries and housing patterns resulted in mostly Black and mostly white schools. White families often moved away—known as "white flight"—when Black families moved in, further deepening segregation. In a 1963 protest in Chicago, marchers carried signs that read, “We want quality integrated education.” This quote reveals how people challenged unfair conditions and demanded change.

While many white residents argued that segregation was simply the result of people choosing where to live, civil rights activists, like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., disagreed. They pointed out that unfair practices and discrimination limited real choices. Policymakers and city officials sometimes ignored or defended these patterns, claiming there was no intent to discriminate, which made it harder for African Americans to achieve equality.

The consequences of de facto segregation were serious. Black families often attended overcrowded schools with fewer resources, experienced higher unemployment, and faced limited access to good housing. These patterns created a cycle of poverty that was difficult to break. However, African American activists and their allies organized protests, filed lawsuits, and demanded fair treatment through organizations like the NAACP and local community groups.

However, progress was slow. Even after the Supreme Court’s 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision, which declared school segregation unconstitutional, Northern cities resisted integration in subtle ways. School boards changed boundaries or built new schools that kept segregation intact. The struggle for fair housing led to the 1968 Fair Housing Act, but discrimination continued in many places. This shows how change required both new laws and shifts in people's attitudes.

Northern segregation demonstrates that discrimination was not just a Southern problem or a matter of laws. It was deeply rooted in economic, social, and political systems. Analyzing these patterns helps us understand the complexity of American history and the ongoing fight for civil rights. By examining different perspectives and evidence, we see both the challenges and the resilience of people who demanded justice.

Interesting Fact: In 1966, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. led marches in Chicago to protest de facto segregation, facing angry crowds and even rocks thrown at him.

What is de facto segregation?

Which city protested school segregation in 1963?

What did restrictive covenants do?

Why did white flight occur?

How did policymakers often respond to segregation?

"We want quality integrated education" means what?

Northern segregation was only caused by laws.

What does "restrictive covenants" mean?