Men in Power in Early Civilizations — Reading Comprehension

Throughout ancient history, men commonly held positions of authority in both family life and government. In many early civilizations, societies were organized as patriarchies, meaning that men, particularly fathers and kings, made important decisions for their families, cities, and nations. This pattern can be seen in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, where male leaders shaped laws, customs, and daily life for centuries.

In ancient Mesopotamia, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, men dominated most areas of public life. The Code of Hammurabi, created around 1754 BCE, is one of the oldest known sets of laws. This legal code, carved into a tall stone stele, clearly laid out different rules for men and women. For example, only men could own land and lead households, while women had fewer legal rights. Similar practices were found in Sumer, where kings and priests—all male—controlled religious ceremonies and government decisions. Archaeological evidence, such as the clay tablets from the city of Ur, shows that men signed contracts and led trade agreements, reinforcing their dominant role.

In ancient Egypt, the pharaoh was almost always male and considered both a king and a god. Pharaohs like Ramses II and Tutankhamun commanded armies, built massive monuments, and led religious rituals. Most families were also led by men, who made decisions about work, property, and marriage. However, evidence from tomb paintings and letters shows that some women, like Queen Hatshepsut, could become powerful rulers, though this was rare. The Nile River shaped Egyptian society, and men’s control over resources and land was key to their power.

In ancient Greece, especially in the city-state of Athens, patriarchy was part of daily life and government. Only free-born men could participate in the assembly, vote, or hold office. Women and enslaved people were excluded from political life. Philosophers such as Aristotle wrote that men were naturally suited to rule, reflecting the ideas of their time. Yet, in the city-state of Sparta, women had more freedom compared to Athens, although men still held most official power. Greek literature, like Homer’s "Iliad," often described heroes and kings making decisions for entire communities.

The influence of male authority in ancient civilizations lasted for thousands of years and is an important example of how societies organized themselves. While men were usually at the top of the social hierarchy, evidence shows that women could sometimes rise to positions of leadership. Understanding patriarchy helps historians explain how laws, traditions, and daily life were shaped in different places and times.

Learning about men in power connects to larger questions about how people organize their societies, make rules, and distribute power—topics that remain important in world history today.

Interesting Fact: In ancient Mesopotamia, a man’s beard was often a symbol of his status and power. Kings and officials wore carefully styled and curled beards to show their authority.

Who created the Code of Hammurabi?

Which river shaped ancient Egyptian society?

Who could participate in the Athenian assembly?

Why did men hold most power in patriarchies?

How did the Code of Hammurabi show male authority?

How was Sparta different from Athens for women?

Most ancient leaders were male. True or false?

What does "hierarchy" mean?