Gender Roles in Ancient Civilizations — Reading Comprehension

Throughout ancient history, men and women held different roles, expectations, and rights within their societies. These roles were shaped by geography, religion, and social hierarchy. Examining the experiences of men and women in civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and China reveals both similarities and differences in daily life and status.

In Mesopotamia, one of the earliest civilizations (c. 3500 BCE), men typically worked as farmers, soldiers, or scribes, while women managed households and raised children. The Code of Hammurabi, a famous set of laws from Babylon around 1754 BCE, reflects these expectations. For example, it outlined strict rules for marriage and property, usually giving men more authority. However, archaeological evidence shows some women owned property and ran businesses, demonstrating that roles were not always fixed. In ancient Egypt, women could inherit land, serve as priestesses, and sometimes rule as pharaoh, such as Hatshepsut (ruled c. 1478–1458 BCE). Yet, most political and religious leaders were men, and the family remained the center of social life.

Ancient Greece displayed both continuity and change in gender roles. In Athens, men dominated public life, voting in assemblies and participating in the arts, while women were largely confined to the home and rarely received formal education. However, in Sparta, women enjoyed more freedom, including owning land and participating in physical training. Primary sources, like the works of historian Herodotus, describe Spartan women as outspoken and influential. Despite some differences, most Greek city-states expected women to focus on family and household duties, while men led military and civic affairs.

In ancient China, Confucian philosophy deeply influenced gender roles, stressing respect for elders and clear social order. Men were seen as heads of the family and held government positions, while women's main responsibilities were within the home. The practice of foot binding (starting around the 10th century CE but rooted in earlier ideas about femininity) symbolized the restrictions placed on women. Yet, some women became respected poets, artists, or even rulers, showing that cultural expectations could be challenged.

These patterns reveal cause-and-effect relationships: as societies became more complex, roles were formalized in laws and traditions. Geography also played a part; for example, Egypt's stable environment may have allowed women more rights than in war-torn regions. Over time, some roles changed, but many expectations about men and women continued for centuries, shaping social structure and daily life.

Understanding the roles of men and women in ancient civilizations helps us analyze how traditions, power, and identity were constructed. These patterns continue to influence societies today and are key to studying world history.

Interesting Fact: In ancient Sparta, women could own and inherit property, a rare right in the ancient world.

When was the Code of Hammurabi written?

Who could become pharaoh in ancient Egypt?

What was rare for women in Sparta?

Why did geography matter for women's rights?

How did Confucianism affect gender roles in China?

What does 'structure' mean in the passage?

Women could own property in Sparta. True or false?

What is a 'primary source'?