Government in Mesopotamia and Egypt — Reading Comprehension

Across the ancient world, the power to rule and make major decisions was usually held by a small group of people. In civilizations such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, and ancient China, leaders divided their societies into levels known as a social hierarchy. This hierarchy determined who had authority, who made laws, and who benefited most from society’s resources.

At the very top of the social order stood rulers like pharaohs in Egypt or kings in Mesopotamia. These leaders claimed their right to rule through divine authority, meaning they said the gods had chosen them. Pharaoh Ramses II, for example, ruled Egypt for over 60 years beginning in 1279 BCE and was often depicted in temple carvings as chosen by the gods. Early Chinese emperors, such as those of the Shang Dynasty (about 1600–1046 BCE), also claimed to rule with the Mandate of Heaven, a belief that their power came from a higher spiritual force.

Beneath the rulers were groups who supported and advised them, including nobles, priests, officials, and warriors. Nobles were often landowners who provided military service and resources. Priests played a critical role, especially in Egypt and Mesopotamia, where religion was central to daily life. They led ceremonies, interpreted the gods’ will, and controlled temple wealth. Officials managed day-to-day affairs like collecting taxes and enforcing laws. Warriors protected the civilization and expanded its territory; the Assyrian Empire, for example, became powerful in the first millennium BCE due to its skilled and organized army.

Archaeological records, such as the tomb paintings in Egypt and cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia, show the importance of these groups. One cuneiform tablet from the city of Ur (about 2100 BCE) records land given by a king to a noble, demonstrating how power and land were closely linked. Despite differences between civilizations, most shared a system where power was concentrated among elites. Over time, some societies saw changes. For example, in ancient Athens, ordinary citizens eventually gained more influence through assemblies and voting, challenging the traditional hierarchy.

These ancient power structures affected daily life, laws, religion, and even what people could eat or wear. Geography also played a role: civilizations with fertile land or rivers, like the Nile or Tigris-Euphrates, could support large populations and complex governments. Understanding who held power helps explain how ancient societies were organized and how their legacies shape our world today.

Interesting Fact: Did you know? In ancient Egypt, priests sometimes became so wealthy and powerful that they rivaled the pharaohs themselves!

Who ruled Egypt for over 60 years?

What did the Mandate of Heaven justify?

Which group controlled temple wealth?

Why were warriors important?

What effect did fertile land have?

How did Athens change over time?

Priests sometimes rivaled pharaohs in power. True or false?

What is a social hierarchy?